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در مورد تحقیقات روانشناسی اجتماعی (مهری غلامی)
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Juvenile Delinquency
Juvenile Delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the adult age (In the United States, 18). However, there is much debate about whether or not a child should be held criminally responsible for his or her own actions. There are many different outside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:
Both are similar theories that attempt to explain juvenile delinquency and suggest that all people are naturally bad. Hirshi believes that youth in particular who use drugs and commit crimes do it because they lack self control. Hirschi believes that poor parenting and families that are unable or willing to monitor their child's behaviors lack self control. For these theories to play out in an effective manner, self-control would need to work before social control can work. Hirschi believes that whoever is the most conformist in society, not necessarily the smartest, will have the most self-control. Travis Hirshi is saying that too much autonomy is not a good thing when dealing with interpersonal relationships among children
A scholar in the field of crime and juvenile delinquency as well as other areas, has numerous theories about juvenile delinquency. A few of his most praised theories are social control theory which is any illegal behavior that occurs within the moment, not planned. Also, self control theory which is any behavior that uses force or fraud in pursuit of self interest.
The number of juvenile arrests have been declining. In 1971, 27% of all arrests were juveniles. In 1991, 19% of all arrests were juveniles. A lot of this change has to do with the declining teenage population. There are 6 million fewer teenagers today than 20 years ago.
Property crime in the U.S. has been fairly stable, there has been a 3% increase between 1982 and 1991. Violent crime has seen a tremendous increase. Since 1965, juvenile arrests have doubled for rape (11:100,000 in 1965 to 22:100,000 in 1991). Crime is generally a young person's game.
Property crime peaks at age 16, violent crime peaks at age 18. All crime drops off dramatically at about age 30. There are some disturbing trends. More than 500 kids under 12 were arrested for rape in 1991.
These statistics should be viewed with caution. For example, some of these figures were estimated, the official numbers may be less disturbing, or even underestimated. With an increased emphasis on juveniles, more enforcement and less discretion equals higher figures. There is also a problem with data being "fudged" in order to justify an increase in resources.
Industrialization.
Industrialization set into motion the processes needed for modern juvenile delinquency. The country had gone from agriculture to machine-based labor-intensive production. Subsistence farming quickly turned into profit making. People who were displaced from their farm work because of machinery were migrating to the city to find work. This led to urbanization in such places as Chicago, which in turn caused the cities to burst at the seams.
The harsh beginnings.
Children were viewed as non-persons until the 1700's. They did not receive special treatment or recognition. Discipline then is what we now call abuse. There were some major assumptions about life before the 1700's.
The first assumption is that life was hard, and you had to be hard to survive. The people of that time in history did not have the conveniences that we take for granted. For example, the medical practices of that day were primitive in comparison to present-day medicine. Marriages were more for convenience, rather than for child-bearing or romance.
The second assuption was that infant and child mortality were high. It did not make sense to the parents in those days to create an emotional bond with children. there was a strong chance that the children would not survive until adulthood.
II. The beginning of Childhood.
At the end of the 18th century, "The Enlightenment" appeared as a new cultural transition. This period of history is sometimes known as the beginning of reason and humanism. People began to see children as flowers, who needed nurturing in order to bloom. It was the invention of childhood, love and nurturing instead of beatings to stay in line. Children had finally begun to emerge as a distinct group. It started with the upper-class, who were allowed to attend colleges and universities.
III. Something new
What can reduce delinquency
A steady and supportive relationship with at least one caring adult throughout childhood is very important.
Strong relationships help children to develop a sense of trust, confidence, self-esteem and social skills.
Children need chances to make friends, to play and to learn in safe, caring situations.
Programs that enhance children's social and emotional development can decrease the possibility of delinquency.
These programs help to counter the risk factors that contribute to delinquency
School
Having difficulty in school and being unable to read well are both linked to failing or quitting school.
Problems paying attention or learning often lead to school failure or dropping out.
Chances of getting involved in delinquent behaviour increase if students drop out of school.
Social factors
Living in poverty means that children are more likely to experience poor nutrition, poor health, increased family stress and fewer social supports.
Youth unemployment and lack of job opportunities can increase the likelihood of delinquency.
Pressure from other young people is also a factor, especially when gangs are involved.
School-based violence, in the form of bullying and harassment can cause serious problems for young people.
Victims may start a pattern of school avoidance while bullies need to be helped out of using violence
Factors that can contribute to delinquency
Children with antisocial or aggressive behaviour are more likely to show antisocial behaviour as teenagers and adults.
It is possible as early as kindergarten to identify children likely to become antisocial or aggressive teenagers.
Health and Family
Brain damage in children, caused by fetal alcohol syndrome, poor nutrition or exposure to toxic substances can be a contributing factor to aggressive behaviour.
Family conflict or violence in the home, or parental mental illness can increase aggressive behaviour in children.
A high number of young offenders have a history of being abused or witnessing abuse in their homes
Youth crime is not out of control
Print media stories about crime in Canada focus mainly on violent crime by youth.
In one study 94% of newspaper stories on youth crime involved violent cases.
Changes in how and why police charge people have contributed to changes in reported youth crime.
The reported increase in the rate of youths charged with violent crimes over the last decade is almost entirely because of a rise in minor assault charges.
Beyond minor assault charges, the actual rate of youths charged with violent crime has increased by only 1/5 of l percent between 1993 and 1995.
What does delinquency mean
Delinquency means antisocial or violent behaviour in young people, often involving criminal acts
There is a wide range in the seriousness of delinquent behavioursMany young people commit crimes such as not paying on public transportation or shoplifting.
Most young people who get involved in criminal activity simply outgrow the behaviour as they get older
What are the facts on youth crime in Canada?
Overall, reported cases of crime in Canada have gone down over the past few years.
Like crime rates on the whole, the average rate of youth crime has generally dropped in the same period.
Two-thirds of youth crime for which police lay charges is property related - usually stealing.
Most youth crime is non-violent.
Home loan delinquency rate shows increase
The percentage of Americans who were delinquent on their home loans rose to 4.7% in the fourth quarter, the highest level since mid-2003. Late mortgage payments soared in the hurricane-stricken states of Louisiana and Mississippi. (Chart: Rates in all 50 states.)
And homes going into foreclosure reached alarming levels in a handful of Midwest states — Ohio, Indiana and Michigan — that were once the backbone of industrial America but have seen an exodus of manufacturing jobs.
About one in five mortgages in Louisiana and Mississippi was overdue. But "the results in those two states simply magnify the trend in the national data," said Doug Duncan, chief economist for the MBA.
Explaining crime and delinquency is a complex task. A multitude of factors exist that contribute to the understanding of what leads someone to engage in delinquent behavior. While biological and psychological factors hold their own merit when explaining crime and delinquency, perhaps social factors can best explain juvenile delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is a massive and growing problem in America.
The social causes of juvenile delinquency encompass a wide array of theories that have been set forth by criminologists and sociologists. Some theorists view delinquency as a function of the individual while others view delinquency as a macro level function of society.
Many of the theories that will be presented will be applicable to at least some instances of crime and delinquency in society. Crime is such a diverse topic, that the explanation of this social problem is just as diverse.
Just as the causal factors of delinquency are diverse and numerous, so are the definitions. Calhoun and others state, "Sociologists define deviance as any behavior that members of a social group define as violating their norms. This concept applies both to criminal acts of deviance and non-criminal acts that members of a group view as unethical, immoral, peculiar, sick, or otherwise outside the bounds of respectability" (168) .
While Calhoun's definition looks at delinquency as an act that defies or diverges from cultural and legal norms, others have founded their own definitions. V.A. Tomovic cites Breckenridge's definition of delinquency as "a condition arising in the matrix of sociopersonal disorganization and in the sequence of experience and influences that shape behavior problems. It is the product of dynamic social process, involving numerous variables and the failure of personal and social controls. It is a symptom of deep socioeconomic and social ailments" (45) . This definition of delinquency sees crime as a basic lack of positive social ties or bonds.
It is important to note the distinction between crime and delinquency. Where as a crime is an act that breaks criminal code which is created by society though written law, delinquency and deviance can be acts that merely break 'cultural law' or norms. Delinquency is usually specific and descriptive of age. Tomovic cites Redl and Winelian, "The legal concept of delinquency simply states which type of behavior is forbidden by law, in which state, for which age group of children and so forth. The cultural meaning of the word might summarize all statements indicating that a piece of behavior is in contradiction with the value demands of the dominant culture within which a given child moves" (45) .